Study On The Life Of Hijras In India Sociology Essay

Study On The Life Of Hijras In India Sociology Essay This dissertation explores the lives of eunuchs, the third gender, in contemporary India. It aims to bring out the several misconceptions harboured about this community and suggest measures to improve their living conditions. One day our descendants will think it incredible that we paid so much attention to things like the amount of melanin in our skin or the shape of our eyes or our gender instead of the unique identities of each of us as complex human beings. Anonymous Over the years, the hijra or eunuch community has occupied an extremely marginalized position in Indian society. By and large, their presence has provoked mixed feelings of fear, awe and contempt from the general public. Over the last two decades, the community has captured the western scholarly imagination as an idyllic case in the transnational system of alternative gender sexuality. When it comes to these type of analyses, as Rosalind Morris states, the hijra becomes either, an interstitial gender occupying a liminal pace between male and female or a drag queen who is a hero(ine) in a global sexual resistance Yet there exists a very different reality from that suggested by these theorists a reality based on rejection by family, cultural and societal isolation as well as neglect. Their identification as a uniquely positioned third sex becomes a lot more complicated when the hijra lifestyle is discussed with respect to this contemporary reality, instead of historical or mythical representation. The community has been subjected to vicious abuse or a lack of empathy, on a mental or physical level from different sections of society at various levels. These sections include the lay person, law enforcers and worse, their own biological parents and relatives. Lying at stake is the fundamental human right to be different, the right to recognition and choice of different pathways of sexuality, in other words a right to sexual orientation, a right to immunity from the oppressive and repressive derogatory labelling of despised sexuality. Expressed in the form of narratives that were penned down after listening to a number of Hijras, this piece of work, at a very primary level, captures the lives of a few of the people from the community that we all choose to shun, despise or simply not bother about. It brings out and analyzes the many stereotypes and superstitions associated with this community. The testimonials of the Hijras and Kothis with whom I interacted bring alive the unimaginable and gruesome violence they are subjected to, especially, at the hands of the police. This dissertation also aims to bring out and deride the atrocities the hijras are subjected to, the injustice that has been meted out to them in various spheres of life and suggest developmental measures in this regard. Above all, this piece of work is dedicated towards creating a little more sensitivity and empathy for this community, that so far does not enjoy most of the basic human rights that we, the normal people, take for granted. THE HIJRAS: WHO WE ARE The hijras are generally considered to constitute a third gender, neither male nor female. Even in their own narratives, the hijras view themselves not simply as neither man nor woman, as the title of Nandas(1990) ethnography on the hijras suggests, but also as deficient in terms of masculinity and not completely feminine. Instead of taking a place outside the female-male binary, the Hijras have created a life somewhere in between, one that is restricted by deep-rooted cultural constructions of femininity and masculinity. Largely, the community expresses a feminine gender identity, coming closest experientially to what would be referred to in the West as a transsexual, that is, a female trapped in a male body. It is a socio-religious construct marked by extreme gender nonconformity in the sense that there is no correlation between their anatomical sex and gender identity. In India, there is a widespread belief that hijras often pick up or kidnap infants and castrate them in order to increase the population of the community, but there are no statistics or factual evidences to support the same. Most hijras in India live in groups that are organised into seven houses, known as gharanas, Mumbai, Pune and Hyderabad being the more populous centres. Each house is headed by a nayak. This persons job is to appoint spiritual leaders or gurus who train their chelas ( wards who are lower in rank) in badhai- the well known singing, dancing and blessing ritual. The gurus responsibility is furthered to act as a protector of his chelas, both from within as well as outside the community. Any quarrels amongst hijras are decided within the community by the nayak and senior gurus acting as law makers, the punishment ranging from imposing fines and expulsion from the community, if the offences were of a higher degree. According to popular religious practice, they are believed to be endowed with special powers to confer fertility on newlyweds or new born children. According to tradition, they are expected to sing and dance at weddings as well as childbirth functions, and in lieu of their services they are rewarded with money, clothes, jewellery etc. Singing and dancing has a respectable status in the Hijra community; it gives them a sense of power as it reaffirms the fact that the people who asked them to sing and dance during the childbirth or any other functions, believe in their powers. The custom of hijras being called for dancing in weddings and childbirth is more prominent in the north, and therefore, sadly, the number of Hijras in the south who take to prostitution to earn money are much more than those in the northern parts of the country. One of the more common Hijra complaints in the form of public appeals to the government is the non availability of decent jobs for them, hence they do not have any choice but to take to prostitution to earn their livelihood. The Kothis Kothis like hijras are transgender persons who identify themselves with the feminine gender. The kep difference lies in the fact that hijras usually settle into a fixed gender role after the castration process, whereas kothis display an ambiguous dual gender identity that swings between the masculine role of the husband demanded in the marriage relationship and the feminine role in the same-sex relationship outside. In simpler words, a kothi can be described as a male homosexual who takes a feminine role in sex with other men. They, largely and essentially belong to a non-English speaking lower middle-class background and feel marginalized in all contexts, whether in terms of economic status, language, education, or sexuality. Due to the pressure extended by family as well as society to conform to normal norms like marriage and reproducing, many kothis marry and raise families , but continue to have same-sex relationships outside, often under hidden and covert circumstances. Economic problems within families as well as non acceptance of this abnormal member within the family drives many other kothis to sex work. Sadly, even when they do make an effort to seek employment in more decent professions, both hijras and kothis are very often subject to sexual harassment at the workplace which makes it impossible for them to continue working there. There exists a visible, symbiotic relationship between hijras and kothis that is strengthened in the face of oppression, due to the lack of support systems for kothis in cities and towns. This has led kothis to depend upon hijra subcultures for both assistance and support emotional as well as otherwise. Hence due to the existence of such a relationship, there is a constant, perpetual exchange of languages, behaviour, mythologies between the hijra and the other homosexual subcultures. The early years, the young transgender confused; and the attitude of parents: Typically, when they are young and born into so called normal families, initially the parents humour the boy child if he behaves like a girl. But as he grows up, once he turns eleven or twelve, the parents start getting irritated at the childs behaviour. By the time he is in his teens, the father typically starts abusing and beating the child. Such an attitude displayed by the parent is more pronounced in villages and small towns since here awareness is less. The transgender child himself does not realize the reasons behind his behaviour; he cannot understand why he feels like a female inside, and gets more frustrated with the constant chastising by the parents. Soon he runs away, usually with the aid of a sympathetic elder in the village, who directs him to a hijra community in some other village. The hijra community and the first signs of awareness by the individual about his own biology: When he reaches there, the hijra community welcomes him and explains to him the reasons behind his so called queer behaviour. They give him the option of becoming a part of their community after the conversion process into a transsexual, castration followed by surgical regeneration of the vagina, or to remain as he is and explore the world by himself. In most instances, the individual at that moment decides to stay as he is, and goes into the village to seek employment opportunities. As most hijras testify, very soon the transgender individual is then raped, in most cases by policemen who arrest them on the supposed grounds that they are homosexual. It is tragic to know that the law enforcers are usually the ones who sexually violate these individuals first. After being abused multiple times, sexually as well as physically, the broken individual returns to the hijra community and asks for acceptance into their family. The castration process is never smooth in nature, usually carried out without the aid of modern anaesthesia or antibiotics. The operation costs for the surgical reconstruction of the female biological organs (such as the vagina) range from a minimum of seven thousand rupees (no anaesthesia) to a high of fifty thousand rupees. Since most of these individuals are poor, they settle for the operation that requires lesser costs. Depending upon the money, the expertise, and the success of the operation, the surgical reconstruction varies from being partially to fully complete. In many cases, if the surgery goes wrong, it might lead to blockage in the urinary passage and this could be terribly painful for the individual. The hijra family: A hijra family comprises daughters, sisters and mothers no males. After being rejected by their own biological families, the hijra family becomes the first and only source of emotional support. They are strong, close knit and provide safety and security for the abandoned people. However, due to poverty, discrimination, lack of education and skills, many of them have no means of earning money. So, they engage in commercial sex work and begging. Most hijras do not think twice about joining the sex trade, what with being abused physically and mentally multiple times. Transgender, Transsexual and Intersexual: At the most basic level, we take a look at the meanings of terms, transgender, transsexual, intersexual and androgyne. A Transgender is a person who is assigned a gender at birth based on his/her genitals, but feels that the assigned gender is a false representation of himself/ herself. Such a persons identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender roles, but combines or moves between these roles. Gender-queer, third gender are also names given to transgender individuals. According to The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health (ICD), Trans-sexuality is a need that certain individuals have to live and be acknowledged as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort with ones ones current sex, and a desire to have hormonal and surgical treatment to make ones body conform as much as possible with ones preferred sex. On the removal of the sexual organs he/she was born with, a transgender becomes a transsexual. In simpler words, Transsexual men and women desire to establish themselves permanently as a member of the gender with which they identify, often using medical help for the same. One out of every two thousand births is an intersex child, and usually the birth leaves the parents of the child frustrated, confused and depressed. It also leaves them with a dilemma as to which gender the child belongs. Intersexed individuals do not have all the regular combinations of physical features; they have some chromosomal, genital anomalies. In simpler terms, such individuals may have biological characteristics of both males and females, i.e, these individuals have some parts of males and some of females. In some cases, an intersex person might look unambiguous sexually, but internally the sex anatomy is mixed, i.e he may have AIS complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and therefore, even though he has a Y chromosome and testes, the individual is otherwise completely female on the outside. Thus the fundamental difference between an intersex individual and a transgender is that unlike an intersex individual, a transgendered person is born with the conventional male or fe male anatomy. All the same, unlike other normal humans, he feels himself/herself to be a gender different from the one he/she born as. Discrimination against hijras: Education, health, employment The highly populated country that India is, with several different castes, religions, languages, the hijra community becomes an almost invisible minority. Biases against hijras are prevalent in our society in all walks of life. They are not granted education in schools, colleges or universities. Over ninety percent of the hijras have not even completed their secondary education. Hence, they do not get jobs, and in the rare occurrence that they do get employed, the salaries they receive are minimal. Due to the harsh economic conditions, they resort to sex work and begging. Hygienic activities are not practiced by those who are in the flesh trade. Even though the usage of condoms is insisted by them to protect themselves as well as their clients from HIV/STD, the people involved in this trade are still prone to getting other diseases like skin diseases due to lack of hygienic and safe practices. Even in hospitals and clinics, many transgender and transsexual people are discriminated ag ainst, and not given the respect or dignity that every human being deserves. Most of the transgender and transsexual people live in slums. Even if they have the monetary power to rent a house, due to the misconceptions about their lifestyle, most people refuse to give them a house on rent. Contempt, hatred and fear form a major part of the general impression about this unfortunate third gender. Even in public places like bus stations, railways stations, theatres, temples, offices, malls, even in public toilets, hijras are abused. A LOOK THROUGH HISTORY: Most hijras believe their origins to date back to the period of the Mahabharata. In it, Arjuna has to hide himself for a year. He decides to dress up as a woman as this is completely opposite to his till then great warrior status. During this period when he is a drag, he is a dancer in the kings court, and also a wedding singer. Then later, during the Kaurava Pandava war, the pandavas want to make a human sacrifice, believing that it would ensure victory in the war. No one is ready to volunteer, till finally, Aravan, the son of Arjun comes forward and offers himself for sacrifice. He has only one condition, that, he should enjoy one night of marital bliss before the sacrifice. This proves to be a difficult situation since no king is willing to marry his daughter to Aravan, knowing fully well that she would be widowed the next day. Finally, Lord Krishna takes a female form and spends one night of marital bliss with Aravan. Aravan is duly sacrificed the next day. The story has become more and more popular through the ages and now, every year, in the village of Koovagam in Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, there is a temple festival and thousands of hijras travel through the breadth of the country to attend it. Aravan is the temples main deity and thousands of hijras pay homage, or in a mock ceremony get marri ed to his idol, and in the process become Aravanis. One night before the festival ends, the hijras enjoy a night of marital bliss with their lovers and the next day, a massive effigy of Aravan is taken through the streets of Koovagam and then the body is set to flames. There is a passage in Zia Jaffreys book, The Invisibles: a tale of eunuchs in India, that talks about the Ramayana. According to legend, when Rama went to the forest, many people followed him. Rama then asks all the men and women to go back. The hijras, being neither men nor women stay put and wait for Rama to return for fourteen years. On Ramas return, he is touched by their devotion and blesses them for their loyalty by sanctioning them the power to grant blessings on auspicious occasions like childbirth, marriage, and other functions hence the custom of badhai, in which hijras sing, dance and confer blessings. The hijras also worship Bahuchara mata. As legend goes, a woman, Bahuchara was travelling through a forest in Gujarat. She is accosted by some dacoits who threaten to rape her. She cuts off her breast and offers it to them, in exchange asking them not to touch her. She then dies and becomes an earth goddess. During the conversion process, i.e, the castration process, a hijra midwife cuts a coconut to see if the process should continue. If Bahuchara mata agrees, the coconut will slice into two clean halves. The hijra who is undergoing the castration process, mutters mata mata mata until the process is complete. As legend goes, Bahuchara mata appears in front of impotent men and orders them to cut off their genitals and become her slaves. If they do not agree, they would become impotent for the next seven generations. According to another popular legend, a king in Gujarat fell madly in love with Bahucharimatha, a beautiful goddess who rode a peacock. The king wanted to marry her, but she was not ready to have a sexual relationship. When he continued to persist in his endeavours, she relented but told him to first have a bath in a pond. On coming out of the pond, he was aghast to discover that he was emasculated, and would not be able to consummate his union with the goddess. The goddess pacified him by saying that he would soon find a community of people who would voluntarily castrate themselves in his honour. Around the world Eunuchs were a part of the Egyptian court, during the time when the Assyrian empire was ruling the country. In Rome, Emperor Constantine had a number of eunuchs tending to him for haircuts, baths, dressing and other functions. In the Byzantine royal court too, there were a number of eunuchs employed to handle domestic and administrative work. The Ottoman Empire had two categories of eunuchs taking care of the harem. The black eunuchs served the officers with maids of lower ranks, whereas the white eunuchs (those brought from the Balkan states) served those who were recruited in the Palace school. In India, eunuchs were employed by kings to take care of the ladies palaces, serve as guards and messengers for the royal ladies. LITERATURE REVIEW After getting a general understanding of the hijras, the categories, their lives, their history, I would now proceed to examine the literature that has been devoted to them. The Invisibles: A tale of Eunuchs in India is a bold, beautifully written, thought provoking book about the hijras of India by Zia Jaffrey. In the book, Anita, a hermaphrodite is handed over to the hijra community by her parents when she is just four years old because they cannot accept the fact that they do not have a normal child and are crushed by what they see. Another character, Kamal, born as a male, believes herself to be a female and castrates herself, while a third character Jagoman is kidnapped in Delhi, drugged and then castrated against his will. In the book, Jaffrey takes us on a journey throughout the country to find out who the hijras really are, why the subject has not been researched on much and why is it taboo, and why their history was never recorded. The book gives a detailed description of the lives, practices, culture and history of this unfortunate gender; raises pertinent questions about societys attitude and in many ways illuminates not just the grim world of the eunuchs but also that of India, itself. Neither Man, nor Woman: The hijras of India is an astounding piece of writing by Serena Nanda. Initially, it aims at correcting the common misconception that all hijras are men who undergo a ritual castration, thereby removing their genitals and becoming hijras. The book informs us that the hijras might have come from various sexual ambiguous backgrounds some may have been born as intersex, while others would have been born as male or female but failed to develop at puberty, or males who continued living as hijras without ever getting castrated. Nanda goes on to make comparisons of Indian hijras with other alternative gender roles belonging to other cultures, such as the transsexuals living in many Western societies and also with the Berdache of native North America. What is intriguing but all the same extremely interesting to note is that although most societies, especially the Asian, accept the ambiguity of gender by creating a third gender role, Western society seems extremely ad amant on the theory that a person can be either male or female only. In fact, even the homosexuals and transsexuals in these societies are considered to be a member of either of the two above genders. Transgender Rights, as the title suggests, is a book on the transgender rights movement that started in the United States of America thirty years back and is still going strong. The book assesses the victories and failures of the movement, the future challenges as well as opportunities. The movement fought for the rights of transgenders and transsexuals. The book is, in essence, a collection of articles that covered the rights movement, offering new perspectives and it examines important topics like employment opportunities, public health, economics, and grassroots organizing. This path breaking book is an essential resource in the fight for the freedom and equality of those who cross gender boundaries Changing Sex and Bending Gender, edited by Alison Shaw and Shirley Ardener is a compilation of nine essays about the cultural and historical construction and deconstruction of sex and gender. The initial chapters speak about the definitions of sex and gender; and that even though sex is based on biological characteristics and gender on social classifications, the definitions do not stand fixed across cultures. The next two chapters discuss the cultural pressures in the sex classification when a child is born. With 1.6 percent of children all over the world being born with ambiguous genitalia, the book offers several examples of the response to this, across cultures. As expected, the reactions do not vary much across cultures. The final three chapters deal with the lay mans interpretations and misconceptions about other alternative genders. The objective of the book is to bring out the fact that sex and gender are not fixed concepts and what happens when individuals push these two con cepts beyond the point that society has defined as permissible. The book is an excellent read, especially for people who want to pursue anthropology or gender studies. The Female Eunuch by Germaine Greer is one of the most popular and widely read books on feminism. Published in 1970, it became an international bestseller and was translated in over ten languages. It is a passionate, almost furious, hard hitting book on the present standing of women as compared to men, in the world. The book, at that time, served as a wakeup call to all women. It contends that sexual freedom is the key to womens liberation. It compares the psychological differences resulting from years of social conditioning, with the biological differences that are present between men and women. A section has been attributed to society, of its origins, its development over the years and where it currently stands. Through this book, Greer exposes the nature of inequalities that exist when it comes to gender rights and issues, and suggests strategies that could help improve the situation, if anyone chose to do so. The Autobiography of a Sex Worker by Nalini Jameela is an extremely personal, honest account of the life of Nalini. The book gives deep insights about the life of sex workers, and the circumstances in which they make their choices. Brought up in an Ezhava family, in her early years, Nalini works in the clay mines. Through the course of the book, we notice the slow yet gradual changes in society. Being extremely poor, and having children to support, she decides to resort to commercial sex work to earn money. The story goes back to the dark days of Emergency, when the police used to routinely arrest and torture innocent people, most of them who were poor and whose voices could not be heard. She recounts her interactions with the police in a chillingly, honest manner. Over the years, with the advent of organizations that worked for social rights, gender rights etc, the situation improved even though there were still innocent people who were jailed. The account is neither cynical, nor do es it have any traces of self pity. Nalini understood that to take care of her children, she would need to sell her body. The love that she displays for her daughter is heart warming. The book is an important read, one that helps us to understand that society can be exploitive, unforgiving and it has multiple layers, many of which are hidden to the naked, believing eye. KNOWLEDGE GAP: At the most basic level, there exists a lack of knowledge amongst the lay man about hijras. The first step, therefore, should be to create basic awareness in the minds of people, to sensitize them, to reach a stage where hijras can also expect a life of dignity. There are too many misconceptions and stereotypes related to hijras. This has led to a lot of social stigma being attached to this gender. Lack of opportunities, be it education, employment, health. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: The objective of my research methodology would be to illustrate the social marginalization of eunuchs by pointing out, statistically and otherwise, their absence in social, legal and political organizations. This will be done through, Analysis of secondary data A review of works on the subject by authors, academic as well as non academic literature, news reports, blogs and websites. Primary Research Taking interviews of hijras, first-hand accounts to verify conclusions derived from the secondary data. Also, conducting interviews of individuals working in social organizations, devoted to improving the conditions of hijras. Empirical Observations EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION: My thesis does not claim to have a tangible and substantial measurable contribution but adds to the domains of human sensitivity, sensibility and conscientization. A postmodern condition, such as the one we claim to have arrived at, cannot be complete unless all its participants have equal access to what constitutes a minimum life of dignity However, the objective of my research, studies and thesis, does comprise suggesting measures that, if implemented, would ensure that the hijras can enjoy a life with certain rights that every human being deserves. These would include sustainable and feasible proposals for employment, education and healthcare opportunities. THE CONTEXT OF MARGINALIZATION: Indian society is deeply divided along the lines of gender, caste, religion, class, language, education, all of which intersect with sexuality to create deeper divides and oppressions. While hijras are despised and treated with contempt in most societies, they are supposed to have a sanctioned place in Hindu society (especially in weddings, births and festivals) as a recognized third gender, accommodating gender variation, ambiguity and contradictions. There is an arguement that says that unlike other sexual minorities such as bisexuals, gays and lesbians all that largely remain closeted, the hijras overall are a visible force , and part of an organized community. Despite this supposedly elevated status amongst the sexual minorities, reality is starkly harsh. All over the country, in any part where the Hijras reside, their lives are physically, mentally and emotionally scarred by experiences of shame, dishonour and gruesome violence. In the contemporary scenario, its not just the ambiguous gender but also the class dimension of the hijra and kothi community that has a severe impact on issues which the upper class so conveniently take for granted, such as access to education, employment etc. The violence that they suffer on a daily basis is something that no other community in this country faces. Imagine yourself in a situation where practically the entire world looks down upon you, a mere look at you is met with contempt, imagine a world where you do not even enjoy basic privileges like education, a job, a life. Imagine a world where not even your parents and siblings can accept you for who you are and choose to hate you for no apparent fault of yours. Imagine being beaten up every day by random men. Imagine being penetrated physically, mentally every day by random men. Imagine crying every day. Welcome to the world of Hijras. In most of South India, the hijras do not even have the cultural role that their counterparts have in the northern parts of the country. Most employers are not ready to hire them for available jobs. Often, they resort to hiding their gender identity but if found out, in most cases, they are thrown out from their positions. Therefore sex work becomes, in most cases, the only form of employment. They usually run bath houses, also known as Hamams. The Hamams are generally visited by working class men and the police. Of course, most of these men are married. It is an extremely dangerous profession, as they are often subjected to the sadistic whims, fancies and atrocities of cruel customers. Narrated below are the testimonies given by some of the hijras I had the privilege of meeting and speaking to. As is clear, kothis and hijras take up sex work for a variety of reasons. One reason involves the pragmatic consideration of supporting the family. There is also the pride which comes from being able to support the family. Another reason has to do with the self-acceptance of being a hijra and with the related discovery of a certain kind of freedom that living in the hijra community can provide. Many hijras and kothis fiercely assert that there is nothing disreputable about being a sex worker and it is as legitimate a piece of work as any other. BIBLIOGRAPHY Journals Publications Peoples Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka(2000).Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India report (first edition).PUCL KARNATAKA. Peoples Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka(2007).Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India report (second edition).PUCL KARNATAKA. Bodies That Dont Matter: The Discursive

Fredrick Frankenstein Essay

Fredrick Frankenstein is a young brain surgeon and medical lecturer trying not to live in the shadow of his infamous grandfather, Victor Von Frankenstein. However, this proves to be difficult when he is taken to his grandfather’s estate in Transylvania to collect his inheritance. He continues to be determined to estrange himself from his grandfather’s legacy as a scientist who created a monster. However, upon discovering a book by Victor entitled â€Å"How I Did It†, he decides that his grandfather’s work was not such idiocy, and decides to try and create his own legacy for the Frankenstein name. He accomplishes this with the help of his two comedic sidekicks – the assistant Igor and the pretty young Inga. However, the world is not ready for such a scientific advancement, particularly after the disastrous results of Victor’s experimentation, and Fredrick and his creature experience much discrimination at the hands of the creature. However, after Fredrick further experiments in the sciences, the creature is made more socially acceptable and allowed to live life with his bride, Elizabeth. Explanation: Young Frankenstein is a challenge to the way both the traditional Frankenstein text is read, as well as the whole gothic film genre. It parodies all the aspects that are considered â€Å"traditionally Frankenstein-esque†, such as the mad scientist shouting, â€Å"It’s alive! † and the lumbering, groaning creature. However, as a text, it recognises the value of the classics, and not only satirises, but pays homage to them also. â€Å"It wasn’t about saying ‘how can we make it fun? ‘, but ‘how can we make it real, which will make it more fun? ‘†1. By recognising the artistic value but also the ultimate ridiculousness of traditional Frankenstein films, Brooks allowed Young Frankenstein to not have to resort to continuous slapstick in order to gain its hilarity. The text was written in the context of the early 1970s, where people were more inclined to doubt and question the norms put forward by Hollywood and the media in general. Brooks, as a composer, has recognised this cynicism and used it to extract humour from a great modern classic. Unlike many of the predecessors of the Frankenstein genre, Young Frankenstein questions the original values of Shelley’s text and explores many themes which had traditionally been ignored by previous Frankenstein films, such as the creature’s ability to love and be human. It does not follow the exact storyline of the original text, choosing instead provide commentary on the preceding Frankenstein, Son of Frankenstein, and Bride of Frankenstein; to have a grandson who has not learned from his grandfather’s mistakes. Aside from the monster itself, the majority of characters in this text have been changed. However, Fredrick is much like his infamous grandfather – a scientific genius, and engaged to a beautiful young woman named Elizabeth. This pays homage to the protagonist of the original text, which still maintaining its status as a parody. These changes have been made to demonstrate the ultimate ridiculousness of the original Frankenstein, while still being able to examine its many themes through the use of humour. Young Frankenstein is not meant to be a serious appropriation of Shelley’s text. Its main purpose is to challenge the traditional Hollywood interpretation of the Frankenstein monster, and to â€Å"have a little fun in the process†2. However, through its use of humour and satire, it manages to explore the deepest theme of Shelley’s text – what shapes and defines us as humans? This text is valued in a number of contexts. It is considered one of the greatest comedy films of all time, and remains highly popular nearly 30 years after initially being composed. A secret government program called ‘The Initiative’ is capturing demons and other mystical creatures in order to experiment on and neuter them. One of the leading scientists involved in the project, Professor Maggie Walsh, is experimenting with different body parts, of man, machine and demon in order to create a being – Adam. He is intellectually and physically superior to man, and kills his creator, only to reanimate her as a worker. Buffy Summers, a girl chosen from birth to fight supernatural forces, is determined to overcome Adam, despite his superior physical strength. A vampire in alliance with Adam, Spike, works to defeat her by estranging her from what she draws strength from – her friends. However, Buffy overcomes this estrangement, and rebuilds her friendships. They then band together to destroy the source of Adam’s power, succeeding by combining their most human elements – heart, mind, spirit and body. Explanation: There are three central figures to this story arc – the scientist (Maggie Walsh), the experiment (Adam, and to a certain extent, Riley Finn), and the hero (Buffy Summers). Although, like the original text itself, there are a number of other characters, the storyline depends primarily on the actions of these three figures. In many ways, the Adam story is almost entirely true to the original text, in that it focuses on two main issues of Shelley’s text: the nature of isolation, and the effect of man overstepping scientific boundaries. Additionally, it partially examines the nature of behaviour, namely whether evil is intrinsic or circumstantial. The creation’s name – Adam – a direct inter-textual reference, referencing Milton’s Paradise Lost -â€Å"I ought to be thy Adam† (p128) and the Bible story in Genesis, which articulates ‘Adam’ as the first man. Regardless, his name, meaning ‘first born’ is significant because, like Frankenstein’s creature, he is the first of his kind, and remains the only one of his species. Like the original text, he learns of himself through his creator’s diaries. â€Å"I’m a kinematically redundant, biomechanical demonoid. Designed by Maggie Walsh. She called me Adam and I called her Mother . . . Mother wrote things down. Hard data, but also her feelings. That’s how I learned that I have a job here. And that she loved me. † (â€Å"Goodbye Iowa†). The issue of intrinsic evil is potently illuminated here. Unlike Frankenstein’s creation, who is abandoned by his creator and shunned by society, Adam himself says â€Å"she loved me† and was considered his mother, but he kills her regardless. The original plan for his existence had been to create a race of those like himself, to diminish the U. S. A. ‘s military vulnerability. He also offers the demons something humans cannot – full use of their power, thus strengthening the army he is building to bring his ‘new race’ into power. Throughout many of the episodes in which Adam features, it is implied that he was built for the purpose of creating a new, indestructible species. In â€Å"Primeval†, he says to Riley â€Å"This is how [Mother] planned it†¦ Only she thought she’d be alive. † Like Victor in the original text, she is a victim of her own vision, drive and selfish lust for success. â€Å"Maggie Walsh’s vision was great, but ultimately insupportable. † (Primeval) She has altruistic intentions of wiping out death and weakness in the human race, like Victor, claiming, â€Å"This is for the greater good†. (The I in team). However, similar to Victor, she has no real sense of the moral implications this entails. She is different to Victor in that she has some sense of the consequences of her actions. However, both are unable to face those consequences. This represents the idea of the scientist with no idea of the moral implications of playing with the natural order of life. Both in an 18th and 21st century context, the idea of leaving the natural order alone is discussed, implying that although between Shelley’s time and now there have been a great number of scientific advances, some boundaries remain philosophically rigid.

Mobile Apps For A Perfect Operational System And Customer...

More than two billion people worldwide are currently using the internet on their mobile phone, and that number is about to grow in the future. Source If you believe your business ready to join the Pro-Leagues organization (those use the next level mobile apps), then it is also the time that you must contemplate about creating a mobile app for your business. In this technology driven world, companies and corporate houses are using mobile phone applications to harness their operational matters and to reach out to their customers. Many experts say that mobile apps can become the main catalyst for the success of any entity. And, already, many established multinational companies are relying on mobile apps for a flawless operational system and customer convenience. But the question remains, is your company ready for a mobile app? So, in order to provide an answer, today I am going to tackle this particular question and find out whether your business actually ready to leverage technology or not. Take a look at some of facts here. 1. Long Term Commitment Before you approve the Mobile App Plan, make sure that is a viable long-term business decision. To make a iOS and android app, you’d first have to open up your checkbooks. Thus, determining whether it is justifiable or not, will solely depend on what plan you have in mind. You must even have a secure return on investment plan or at least a Plan B when you are about to put in the mobile app. Remember, mobile app internallyShow MoreRelatedSamsung Strategic Management5130 Words   |  21 Pagesa global leader in technology, opening new possibilities for people everywhere. 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Rapid Development of International Micro-finance

Rapid Development of International Micro-finance The Rapid Development of International Micro-finance Introduction One of the concepts of Finance that has continued to excel over the last two decades and to which numerous groups and institutions attribute their financial success in the various development projects is International Micro-finance. Though not so active, microfinance has been prevalent for centuries with savings and credit groups and numerous savings clubs all over the world offering financial services to the poor population that was often neglected by commercial banks. With the little profit that they made from these services, the various savings and credit developed further to form cooperatives and other development financial institutions such as micro credit organizations which provided small loans mainly to the poor people in the rural areas who could not meet the high collateral requirements of the existing commercial banks. The origin of global micro-finance institutions can be traced back to the mid -1970’s in Latin America and South Asia whereby various credit and savings groups merged to form more stable micro-finance institutions which paved the way for the international micro-finance industry that has proved to meet the numerous financial requirements of individuals and development of numerous projects on a global basis. Over the last two decades, the global micro-finance industry has been on an increased rate of growth taking up the international financial market by storm. Statistics indicate that the industry has expanded its limits and currently it can serve up to 200 million clients across the world’s geographical regions. For instance in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Micro-finance Institutions serve about seven million borrowers and records gross savings of nearly US$ 2.8 Billion with a total of about 17 million savers. Due to the numerous growth and prevalence of the micro-finance ind ustry in the region, gross loans portfolio together with savings growth has raised to 69% and 60 % respectively. A similar trend was evident in Europe whereby various types of large and more formal credit institutions came were formed. The micro-finance institutions established then primarily majored with rural and the urban poor population and were referred to as People’s Banks, Credit Unions as well as savings and Credit Co-operatives. This research paper will go further to discuss the development of micro-finance on the international level. The paper will address various aspects and trends of the International Micro-finance as well as the general state of the industry on a global base. This paper is divided into four subtopics which include: the Causes of the Rapid development of international Micro-finance; Constraints to the development of a fully-fledged micro-finance in developed Countries; the Impact of development of International Micro-finance in developing economies and the Role of Public Policy in the Development of International Micro-finance. Literature Review Causes of The rapid development of International Micro-finance Over the last two decades, the micro-finance industry has been on an expansive mission, taking over the financial and credit role over the various commercial banks and other related institutions. One of the main reasons behind the rapid growth of the micro-finance industry is the fact that there has been a high demand for capital among the poorest. The main goal of micro-finance is to generate and hold savings for future financial needs. These savings play such a significant role in that they protect against the seasonality of cash flows especially among the poor people in the rural areas and the urban poor (Robert, 2002). By so doing, they help to fulfil an insurance role in covering the financial needs of the clients. More so, the various Micro-finance institutions across the globe facilitate the building up of deposits which enable the yielding of significant collateral levels which enable them to serve as a source funding for their customers. The Micro-finance industry across the globe has been on endless mission to counter poverty especially in less developed countries. Moreover, the microfinance institutions help to speed up economic development in the developing countries by offering a viable source of finance to the masses of people who wish to in invest and build up their financial basis. Micro-finance institutions have also played a significant role by ensuring that their members are protected against financial shock that has seen their children remain in school despite the bad financial times such as inflation. There are two major factors why Microfinance compares favourably to other financial institutions and interventions. These include the cost-effectiveness and the prospects for sustainability. According to Colin (2007), microfinance is advantageous by the fact reason that their donor investments are usually reused or recycled over time which facilitates the principle of sustainability in the financial flow and credit provision. According to statistics and data collected from the comparisons made between microfinance and other lending institutions such as commercial banks, microfinance stands out as a more cost effective developmental tool compared to the available alternatives such as formal rural financial intermediation and the rural infrastructure development projects (Andrew, 2006). In addition to these benefits, costs incurred in the application of microfinance services tend to diminish with the range of the outreach of their services unlike other related interventions which add on their costs and chargers as they cover more people (Colin, 2007). The second significant factor that has added to the rapid development of International microfinance across the globe is the sustainability that comes along with microfinance services. Normally, most of other related developmental tools do not have the potential to remain sustainable after offering the first or the initial start-up grants. In most cases, after offering the initial start-up capital, these institutions find themselves in need of new inputs for each and every client who joins the organization or the union in future (Colin, 2007). Unlike these institutions, microfinance remains stable so that they don’t require their future clients to meet such barriers such as initial inputs and new inputs for the sustenance of their financial services and their lending endeavours. This is despite the fact that they there are no rigorous econometric models to substantiate its operations and capital requirements given the fact that their main target is usually the on clients who ar e not so well up financially. However, statistics and research have proven that Microfinance institutions that target poor customers are at a better place to achieve fairly considerable repayments rates compared to those institutions that major with richer clients (IAMFI, 2008). The other factor that has facilitated the rapid development of International Microfinance is the formation of microfinance networks in the regions across the globe. These microfinance networks act as umbrella organizations for the functioning and the welfare of multiple microfinance institutions, thus providing a viable avenue their cooperation which guarantees support for each other and a centre for sharing ideas, experiences as well as articulating solutions to the common challenges that face them in their daily functions. According to Colin (2007), microfinance networks have been instrumental in the development of the microfinance institutions, and I quote, â€Å"Country and regional microfinance networks have an additional focus on advocating local microfinance policies and help members transform into regulated deposit-taking financial intermediaries.† An ideal example of such one of the largest microfinance networks in the world that has facilitated the rapid development of international microfinance is Accion. This is an NGO which is based in the United States and offers technical and consultancy services to the various microfinance institutions under it leadership. The major services offered by the network is concerning the management of the institutions, investment as well as governance support and guidance all aimed at building the institutions’ capacity and financial strength so as to fully meet the needs of the low-income households across the globe (IAMFI, 2008). Constraints to the Development of a Fully-Fledged Micro Finance in Developing Countries In as much as there have been numerous expansion and growth of international microfinance, we must acknowledge the fact that the mission to achieve the excellence and development records has not been without some impediments. There are various constraints that the international microfinance industry faces in their bid to meet the financial needs of their clients. This is more evident in developing countries where most people turn to the services offered by the microfinance institutions due to their numerous financial needs occasioned by low capital endowment. The constraints or barriers that face the development of international microfinance can be analyzed in terms of their efficiency, their profitability as well as their levels of the overall outreach. One of the major constraints of the rapid development a fully fledged microfinance industry in developing countries is the establishment of inappropriate government regulations which affect the welfare and the functioning of the microfinance institutions in the various economies across the globe. The major issue with governments is the fact that the policy makers exhibit difficulties in formulating effective legal frameworks around facilitate the smooth operation of microfinance institutions operations (Robert, 2002). Countries which have taken the initiative to draft specialized microfinance laws in their economies have helped to enhance growth and innovation in the international microfinance industry. However, most economies around the globe formulate lenient policies on the microfinance frameworks thus creating environments that only lead to weak institutions which are undercapitalized. As such, they encounter numerous challenges and impediments in the development of their operations and scope of coverage. One of the most prevalent regulations which is more evident in various economies in Sub-Saharan Africa which undermine the global growth and development of the microfinance industry is the creation of interest rate ceilings; commonly referred to as usury laws, which limit the level of at which microfinance institutions can invest (Robert, 2002). The other major impediment of the development of fully-fledged international microfinance is the poor utilization of modern technologies in developing countries. This is more common with economies in regions such as Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa whereby there is underinvestment in the technology among the prevailing microfinance institutions in the regions. This effect can be attributed to the constrained resources of the Microfinance institutions as well as the failure of the responsible management team to recognize the significance of integrating technological advancements in the microfinance industry (Robert, 2002). More so, the system of management information systems forces is either absent and in the few economies which have adopted the system is not well managed. This in turn leads to poor loan-processing and poor record keeping by methods such as paper work and spreadsheets-based solutions which incapacitates the efficiency of the institutions to manage numerous numbers of clients across the globe thereby limiting the profitability and the growth potential of the microfinance institutions. In addition to the above impediments, the lack of transparency and consistency in lending activities among the various developing countries across the globe has amputated the rapid development of international microfinance. According to research findings on the consistency of lending activities of microfinance institutions in developing countries by Andrew (2007), and I quote, â€Å"Most microfinance institutions in developing countries display poor asset quality, with higher portfolio at risk metrics than other microfinance institutions in developed economies of the world.† This has mainly been caused by the lack of viable credit scoring methodologies among the institutions in the developing countries which have resulted in the inefficiency and the poor transparency in the management and their lending procedures. This in turn leads to increased costs incurred in funding for the microfinance institutions occasioned by the high risk involved in the investment due to inefficient management of the lending. Last but not the least of the constraints that limit the development of a fully-fledged International microfinance is the lack of early-stage funding among numerous institutions. One of the major problems that still face most microfinance institutions especially in the developing countries is the fact that the funding which should facilitate the growth of early-stage companies in developing economies remains limited (Colin, 2007). This has been the case despite the increasing recognition of the commercial viability that is attached to microfinance institutions. It has been a major challenge for the small institutions that are emerging to develop and to expand their scope due to the lack of access to affordable finance sources. This has been the case due to the fact that most investment in the microfinance activities in the developing economies is has been concentrated in only a few leading institutions which are fully developed (Andrew, 2007). Impact of Development of International Micro Finance in Developing Economies The impact and the significance of the rapid development of international Microfinance in developing countries cannot be over stated. The financial support offered by the microfinance institutions to the various development groups and individuals has brought positive change in the lifestyle of people across the globe in various ways. One of the most clear and evident impact of the development of international microfinance is the reduction of poverty and vulnerability especially among the low income earners in the developing economies and among the upcoming investors. According to findings by Robert (2002), and I quote, â€Å"Microfinance has also facilitated the trend of saving among numerous households. Consequently, this has made it possible to invest and plan their life such that their livelihood is not affected by some unexpected financial setbacks that they may face in life. Through such investments, people across the globe have been able to increase their levels of income. More so, people have benefited from the jobs created by the various microfinance institutions that have been established across various regions in the world. As such, households are able to cover their expenses and improve on their lifestyle in areas such as nutrition, housing and improved health care standards (Robert, 2002). More so, there has been a significant reduction in the rate at which harmful child labour take place especially in less developed countries. On a general note, reports indicate that there has been a significant improvement among the participants or members who have consistently invested their loans on long term basis in terms of their incomes, assets and their livelihood security. For instance report indicates that participants or members of the microfinance institutions in Vietnam recorded 50% increases in their income levels since 1996 when they joined the mic rofinance institutions in their country (Colin, 2007). More so, as Robert (2002) carefully notes, and I quote, â€Å"poverty reduction estimates based on consumption impacts of credit show about 5 percent of program participants can lift their families out of poverty each year by participating and borrowing from microfinance programs.† The other impact of the international microfinance has been experienced on the per capita expenditure especially among the women members of the institutions whereby women have been empowered and can manage their own development activities as well as their expenditure needs without having to rely on external support. More so, the net worth of the active members of the microfinance institutions has been significantly increased, with more changes being evident among women. In addition, the development of international microfinance has led to the creation of favourable economic environment in the various regions which have adopted the microcredit programs. These programs have been significant to help the members who are not only faced with financial problems but also with issues to do with worries of possible economic crisis, political instability as well as the occurrence of natural disasters. The savings invested in the institutions are normally given back to the members in the form of credit loans which they use to recover and correct their affected projects and to support their daily needs in case such problems take place. Last but not the least among the impact of the rapid development of international microfinance programs especially among the developing and the developed economies is the smoothening of consumption as well facilitating the reduction of the seasonality of labour supply. This is due the numerous employment opportunities that have been created by the numerous microfinance institutions across the globe and the fact that members have substantial amounts of capital to invest and create self employment through business ventures (Andrew, 2007). This way, the long-term members of the institutions are assured of regular in flow of income from the diversified investment projects that they have already initiated to facilitate alternative source of income. Role of Public Policy in the Development of International Micro Finance The implementation of some public policies in the various nations across the globe has also affected the rate of development of international microfinance across the globe in a number of ways. Some policies have had a positive impact on the rate of growth whereas others slow the rate of development of the international microfinance institutions by limiting their scope and interest rate levels thereby limiting their potential to grow into marginal financial institutions. One of the public policies that affect the development of microfinance institutions and operations is the monetary and the taxation policy. Some taxation and monetary policies formulated and implemented by the respective governments may channel substantial amounts of capital or resources away from credit so that they are used in other investment instruments (Robert, 2002). This problem is more common in developing countries whereby the exchange rates as well as the interest rates are usually politicized so as to satisfy the selfish objectives of the politicians. More importantly, the formulation of poor monetary policies by the responsible financial bodies and the various governments such as inflation and economic instability usually reduce the level of savings for the low income earnings who happen to be the majority of the members of the various microfinance institutions across the globe. This consequently affects the group-based microcredit programs so that they are financially unstable to meet bigger projects of the various development groups and the financial requirements of their clients. Another policy that significantly affects the rate of development of the international microfinance institutions across the globe is the government regulation which reduces the capital available for the small businesses to lend their clients. This is due to the fact that the government values the stability of the banking system over the idea of widespread access as is the case with microfinance institutions. In other occasions, banks have shown their willingness to lend the microenterprises. Unfortunately, the policy regulators in these countries counter their efforts by initiating policies that inhibit such procedures. The other issue that affect the efficiency and the development of international microfinance operations is the numerous political interferences in the credit markets, which is more rampant in developing countries. In most cases, politicians have been known to divert development funds to moribund state-owned firms and political or worse off to a few wealthy and influential personalities (Robert, 2002). Rarely do these funds reach the hands of the poor people who seek credit to finance their developmental projects. This leaves the poor with a challenge to form their own credit system which is quite a hurdle given their low resource basis. Conclusion The topic of the rapid development of international microfinance is such a significant topic especially with the current need and challenge of the small scale entrepreneurs to engage in more viable financial development projects. This has been necessitated by the need to counter the high cost of living occasioned by the inflation and other economic challenges. It is important to acknowledge the role that the microfinance institutions play in the international economics welfare such as employment creation and the reduction of poverty among the poor people especially in the less developed and the developing countries. More so, the services rendered by these institutions such as microcredit lending and the mobilization of members’ savings has enhanced the income of the members especially those who have remained loyal to save on a long term basis. It is also important to acknowledge the fact that there are some constraints that hinder the full development and growth of the microfinance across the various economies in the world. Such constraints as lack of transparency in the lending of credit to the clients among others must be fully addressed in order to achieve the full growth and expansion of the scope of the microfinance institutions I across the globe. The active NGO’s and the various policy making bodies across the various economies must take upon themselves the responsibility of ensuring the formulation of favourable policies and viable procedures that enable the free operation and the rapid development of international microfinance across the globe. References Andrew M. (2006). Venture Capital and the Finance of Innovation. Wiley. Print. Robert F. (2002). Analysis of the Effects of Microfinance on Poverty Reduction. New York University, Paper no. 1014. Print. Colin S. (2007). Supporting Growth and Sustainability of the Microfinance Industry in Sub- Saharan Africa. Lehigh University-College of Business Economics. Print. IAMFI. (2008). International Association of Microfinance Investors. CGAP. Retrieved From: http://www.iamfi.com/MI_east-asia-pacific.html. Net.